Cognitive strategies
Most of the psychological strategies athletes can employ while running revolve around their internal dialogue. This may involve associative and dissociative attentional strategies as well as motivational self-talk.
So far, there has been limited research specifically on these strategies in ultramarathon runners, though McCormick, Meijen, & Marcora (2018) found that a motivational self-talk intervention did not affect performance during a 60-mile overnight ultramarathon. However, the study subjects still considered the intervention useful and continued to use the skills developed through the intervention in both their training and races after the study had been completed.
Motivational self-talk involves positive messages and mantras about one’s capabilities. That might be something like “I can do it” or “I am strong” or just “strong” for something very short and simple. These statements could be phrased either in the first or second person – “I can do it” versus “you can do it.” One phrasing may come more naturally to an athlete than the other, though phrasing these statements in the first person will get an athlete to take more ownership of these statements and could ultimately have a stronger impact.
Runners may also use some form of motivational visualisation, where they envision themselves running well both in the present and in the future. That might even include daydreaming about crossing the finish line! We want our athletes to still stay somewhat focused on the present moment, but these strategies used in moderation could still be beneficial.
Attentional strategies can be either associative or dissociative. Associative refers to focusing on information related to running, while dissociative attentional strategies shift the focus away from it. Attention can also be directed either internally (i.e., within one’s own body) or externally (i.e., outside of one’s own body). Combining these two dimensions of attention gives us four possible attention states: associative-internal, associative-external, dissociative-internal, and dissociative-external. Let’s go through those one by one.
Associative-internal refers to focusing on body-related stimuli that are relevant to running. That might mean thinking about one’s running form or focusing on breathing. It could also involve forms of imagery where a runner imagines themselves running well.
Associative-external focuses on factors outside of one’s body that are still relevant to running. That could mean thinking about pace, distance covered, race tactics, distance to the next checkpoint, or monitoring one’s nutrition intake. These logistical considerations can be highly important during ultramarathons!
Dissociative-internal focus can be a little more abstract. It could involve daydreaming or problem-solving, where one is focused on a non-running related task made up inside one’s own head. Many runners say their best ideas come to them while running!
Finally, dissociative-external focus involves focusing on non-running related stimuli outside of one’s body. This could be simply enjoying the view, particularly along a scenic trail race.
It appears that the external-internal dimension doesn’t significantly impact perceived exertion. On the other hand, associative attentional strategies correlate with higher perceived exertion than dissociative strategies. However, the capacity for dissociative thoughts to reduce perceived exertion appears to diminish with increasing exercise intensity. This may be why at low intensities, athletes tend to rely more on dissociative strategies. As the intensity increases, there seems to be a natural shift towards more associative thoughts. This might seem quite intuitive that a runner is more likely to be daydreaming during an easy run and then they are dialled in and focused on their running while performing speed work. Interestingly, in races up to marathon distance, elite athletes tend to use more associative strategies than non-elites.
What does this mean for ultramarathons? While lowering perceived exertion with dissociative thoughts may seem desirable, endurance performance seems to improve through the use of associative attentional strategies. However, most of the studies supporting this notion were done with intensities much higher than those typically sustained during ultramarathons. Thus, both strategies may be useful tools for ultramarathon runners. Dissociative attentional strategies might be called upon during periods where a lower perceived exertion is desired (e.g., when feeling low on energy), and associative strategies might be used during periods of higher intensity (e.g., during tactical surges or running uphill). These skills could readily be practised during training, with an emphasis on associative strategies during higher intensity sessions and dissociative strategies during lower intensity sessions.
Ultramarathon runners will also commonly make small goals along the way, whereby they break up the race into manageable pieces. In the ‘mindfulness and ACT’ section, we discussed techniques for bringing the runner to the present moment; however, it’s almost impossible to meditate for the duration of an entire ultramarathon, and so the mind will naturally wander. The enormity of the race may be overwhelming, but getting to the next checkpoint, or getting to the top of the next hill, or just getting to their next gel, may be easier to deal with.
Key takeaways
1. Motivational self-talk can include positive messages, mantras, and images
2. Attention strategies can be associative or dissociative, and internal or external
3. Associative strategies tend to correlate with higher perceived exertion, and dissociative strategies correlate with lower perceived exertion
4. Runners may break up races into manageable chunks
McCormick, A., Meijen, C., & Marcora, S. (2018). Effects of a Motivational Self-Talk Intervention for Endurance Athletes Completing an Ultramarathon. The Sport Psychologist, 32(1), 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2017-0018.